Cooperation Problems: Definitions and Examples

Uncertainty about behavior: Uncertainty about behavior refers to uncertainty regarding the actions taken by others. Sometimes it is hard to know what other states are doing – in particular, if they are cooperating or defecting. Consider weapons of mass destruction. Whatever a state may say publicly, it is very difficult for others to ascertain whether it is pursuing technologies associated with the development of biological or chemical weapons. Particular sub-issues within the area of human rights are also subject to uncertainty about behavior – especially when the two-level game is operating. For instance, not only is it difficult to see whether certain human rights laws are being enforced in any particular state; if reliable data on noncooperation are readily available, one still cannot be sure whether it is the government who is violating human rights or soldiers in the field not following orders.